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internet access history

he Internet began as a network funded by the  us government to support projects within the government and at universities and research laboratories in the US - but grew over time to include most of the world's large universities and the research arms of many technology companies. Use by a wider audience only came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted.

In the early to mid-1980s, most Internet access was from pc and  workstations directly connected to local area networks or from dial-up connections using modems and analog telephon lins. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s and grew to support 100 and 1000 Mbit/s, while modem data rates grew from 1200 and 2400 bit/s in the 1980s, to 28 and 56 kbit/s by the mid to late 1990s. Initially dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support end-to-end use of the Internet protocols and only provided terminal to host connections. The introduction of network access servers (NASs) supporting the serial line internet protocol (SLIP) and later the point to point protocol (PPP) extended the Internet protocols and made the full range of Internet services available to dial-up users, subject only to limitations imposed by the lower data rates available using dial-up.

Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband and also known as high-speed Internet access, are services that provide bit-rates considerably higher than that available using a56kbits modems . In the U.S. national broadband connection of 2009, the  fedral connection communication  (FCC) defined broadband access as "Internet access that is always on and faster than the traditional dial-up access",^[7] although the FCC has defined it differently through the years.^[  The term broadband was originally a reference to multi-frequency communication, as opposed to narrow band  or baseband  . Broadband is now a marketing term that telephone, cable, and other companies use to sell their more expensive higher data rate products.^[

Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process required, and it does not “hog” phone lines. Broadband provides improved access to Internet services such as:

• Faster www browsing
• Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files
• Telephony ,video conferencing , and videoconferencing
• vpn and remote system administration
• Online gaming , especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are interaction-intensive

In the 1990s, the nationala information infrastructure initiative in the U.S. made broadband Internet access a public policy issue.^] In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses and schools were using broadband connections. In 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries^[ and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each. In 2010, in the OECD countries, over 90% of the Internet access subscriptions used broadband, broadband had grown to more than 300 million subscriptions, and dial-up subscriptions had declined to fewer than 30 million. 

disk defragmentation

disk defragmentation is  tool to defragment the disk 








To defragment a Windows 95/98/ME/XP/Vista/7 hard disk, use the Disk defragmentor program in Programs/Accessories/System Tools. On a Mac, use a utility such as the Speed Disk tool that comes with Norton Utilities for the Macintosh. You should defrag your hard disk every six months. You should also defrag it after you have created or deleted a lot of files in a short span of time.
Alternatively, you could download a free disk defragmenter program like asuslogics disk defrag  . A very good, and very fast disk defrag utility.
Occasionally, a storage area called a sector on your hard disk goes bad. A utility called a disk scanner detects such "hard" errors and keeps a table of such sectors so that your operating system doesn't try to use them to store files. In addition, a disk scanner detects "soft" errors, where the operating system has lost track of pieces of one or more files. Scandisk (found in Programs/Accessories/System tools) is Windows 95/98/ME/XP/Vista/7 built-in disk scanner, and it detects both hard and soft errors. On the Mac, you can use the Disk First Aid program that comes with your system or the more powerful disk doctor utility included in the ubiquitous Norton Utilities for Macintosh. You should run a hard disk scan at least every month. In addition, if your computer crashes or you accidentally shut down without going through the proper shutdown procedure, run a disk scan as soon as you reboot. 

error codes

1 short  Dram refresh failure

 2 short party circuit failure

3 short  base 64k failure

4 short  system time failure  

5 short process failure 

computers

Computers
There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words simply the size, expected use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can apply to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a device that receives input from the user through a mouse or keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen.
There are different types of computers

1: Desktop

A PC that is not designed for portability is a desktop computer. The expectation with desktop systems are that you will set the computer up in a permanent location. Most desktops offer more power, storage and versatility for less cost than their portable brethren.

2: Laptop

­Also called notebooks, laptops are portable computers that integrate the display, keyboard, a pointing device or trackball, processor, memory and hard drive all in a battery-operated package slightly larger than an average hardcover book. Easy to portable

3: Netbook

Netbooks are ultra-portable computers that are even smaller than traditional laptops.Netbooks are desingned to use internet only.Netbooks are small in size . However, netbooks' internal components are less powerful than those in regular laptops.

4: PDA

­Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are tightly integrated computers that often use flash memory instead of a hard drive for storage. These computers usually do not have keyboards but rely on touchscreen technology for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback novel, very lightweight with a reasonable battery life. A slightly larger and heavier version of the PDA is the handheld computer.

5: Workstation

Another type of computer is a workstation. A workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of task, such as 3D Graphics or game development.

6: Server

A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives. The servers have two or more processors or harddrives if one fails ,the other harddisk or processor starts working

7: Supercomputer

This type of computer usually costs hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most are composed of multiple high performance computers working in parallel as a single system. The best known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.

Operating Systems

Operating system 

An operating system, or OS, is a software program that enables the computer hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating system, a computer would be useless.

Operating system types

As computers have progressed and developed so have the operating systems. Below is a basic list of the different operating systems and a few examples of operating systems that fall into each of the categories. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.

GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics and icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI Operating Systems.

System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE

Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the same time and different times. See themulti-user definition for a complete definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of multi-user operating systems.

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing operating systems.

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking operating systems.

Unix
Windows 2000

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:

Linux
Unix
Windows 2000

Troubleshooting

Common questions and answers to operating systems in general can be found on the below operating system question and answers. All other questions relating to an operating system in particular can be found through the operating system page.

Linux and Variants
MacOSMS-DOS
IBM OS/2 Warp
Unix and Variants
Windows CE
Windows 3.x
Windows 95
Windows 98
Windows 98 SE
Windows ME
Windows NT
Windows 2000
Windows XP
Windows Vista
Windows 7